Symbolism and Use of Water in Religion

Symbolism and Use of Water in Religion Question Title: On the element of your choice and the agency of that element. Water and its Purification and Curative Function Christianity and Bathing in Early Medieval Italy This paper analyses the natural element water and its purification and curative function, in the context of Christianity and bathing activity, in early medieval Italy, approximately between the fifth and the seventh centuries. The paper starts by tracing the qualities of water as an element in nature, and how the Italian society responded and produced social and cultural value. The next section examines water as a spiritual purifier in Christianity, with reference of works of medieval art. Lastly, the curative function of water is analyzed with the study of bathing activity in medieval Italy. In this section, the development of bathing from the Roman world to medieval Italy is also analyzed with the continuity of the discussion of Christianity and how it affected the peoples preference in bathing as well as their perception of water. Nature, Society and Culture of Water Among the four classical elements, water was regarded as the ylem, or basic substance of the universe.[1] Water is pervasively and powerfully presented within Western philosophical, literary, and geographical thought. Thales, who is widely regarded as the first Greek philosopher, claimed that water is the source of all things. Reasoned from the circumstance that moisture appears to nurture and inhabit all living things, Thales claimed that such wetness is contained in seeds and sperm, making water as the progenitor-agents of much life.[2] Such philosophical explanation can be supported by the nature of water. Not only it is obvious that the survival and growth of plants, animals, and people largely depends on water; the fact that babies are nurtured inside and protected by amniotic fluid before birth, suggests how particularly close and harmonious the relationship of the people and water is. The way how water was integrated into daily life and contributed to the civilization in early medieval society is particularly irreplaceable when compared to the other three elements fire, earth and air. Domestic usage of water, bathing, irrigation and drainage, fishing, milling and transport all receive full benefit from water.[3] The social and economic values of water can be showed by the scenes of the cities developed upon good sources of water, the numerous sanctuaries built near springs and rivers, and the gathering of women and men at fountains and wells. Water, as an essential element for any community, was not only a resource upon which people relied heavily, but also an element which largely produced philosophical and cultural reactions, which ultimately the Etymologies written by Isidore of Seville in the early seventh century was one of these. Isidore of Seville remarked that water is wondrous by its numerous unusual natural properties curing or sickening people, making plants grow, washing dirt off, quenching thirst, and even removing sins.[4] The natural element water imbued imaginations, associations and cultural values which step forward from its initial nature and practical function. Largely due to the natural function of cleansing and nurturing of water, people associate water with the power of healing and purification. For example, the health of a human body depends on medieval humors, which is the balance of water and the other three elements. Baths, spas, and hot springs were popular not only for the purpose of hygiene and relaxation, but also due to their belief in the benefit of bathing to their physical and spiritual health. The purifying and curative power of water as well as bath was certainly strengthened by the religious association of Christianity. Christianity and Purification of Water Water, as a friendly, useful and tangible element in the Middle Ages, is easily associated with positive qualities in most religions, including Christianity, which water is considered as a purifier. The importance of water in Christianity is interestingly expressed by the fact that water is mentioned in the Bible 442 times in the New International Version and 363 times in the King James Version.[5] One of the most important rite in the Church is baptism, which by the immersion of a person in water, one receive gift of the Holy Spirt and ones sins is simply washed away. The initiates died and were reborn in Christ in baptism.[6] This is when the element water is greatly associated with purification as well as the religious sense of death and rebirth, which is expressed in works of Medieval art, which can be viewed as Christian art in the early Middle Ages. Analyzing a baptistery in real life, the Baptistery of the Orthodox in Ravenna in Italy built in the middle of the fifth century (see Fig.1), the function of purification associated with Christianity cannot be more obvious. The sacrament of baptism, we recall, symbolized not only the cleansing of the soul but also the death of the sinful self and the initiates rebirth in Christ. The architectural design of an octagon plan associates with the spiritual resurrection of baptism, as for the context of Early Christian numerology, eight was the number of regeneration on the eighth day after creation the world began; and Jesus arose from the dead on the eighth day of the Passion Cycle.[7] At the center of the octagonal building is the baptismal font used for immersion, which is built like a bath. In such a Christian setting, the water poured inside the baptismal font is sublimated as a wondrous spiritual purifier, demonstrating how much cultural value a natural element water can imbued. Th e illustrations on the walls and dome of the Baptistery of Orthodox is stressing the importance of baptism as the first step in the divine scheme of salvation.[8] The center of the dome depicts the doctrine that Saint John the Baptist is baptizing Christ with water from the Jordan River (see Fig.2). This evokes a sense that the purest form of water which is able to cure and purify ones soul can lie in natural environment like a river, and is not limited to a holy Christian architecture or a luxurious bath. Interestingly the small human figure on the right hand side is a river god who personifies the Jordon River, showing the rich imagination and association with water by the Italians of the early Middle Ages (see Fig.2). Another example is an apse mosaic located not in Italy, but in Thessalonika in Greece, which has a similar background with Ravenna, that both are a former Roman imperial city that became an important Christian capital in the Middle Ages. Despite its location not in Italy, this apse mosaic in a small chapel dated in the early sixth century is worth analyzing as it clearly illustrates the holy quality of the element water in the context of Christianity, which the Christianity in Greece and Italy would not differ much in the early Middle Ages. It depicts the incarnation of Christ the Lord, represented in human form, emanates from a radiant glory (see Fig.3).[9] Below at Crists feet, four rivers of paradise stream down from a hilltop. Ancient tradition held that four sacred rivers symbolized the four Gospels that flow from Christ. An inscription at the bottom of the mosaic explains that Jesus is the spring of living water, clearly evokes association that water would have the holy power like Christ, including curing and purifying. Water is also somehow associated with paradise, which would be the home of Christ and those who had received baptism. Fig.1 Baptistery of the Orthodox, mid-5th century. Stucco sculpture. Ravenna, Italy.[10]     Ã‚   Fig.2 Baptism of Christ, dome of the Baptistery of the Orthodox, mid-5th century. Mosaic. Ravenna, Italy.[11] Fig.3 Christ in Glory, the Vision of Ezekiel, Hosios David, early 6th century. Apse mosaic. Thessalonika, Greece.[12] Bathing and the Curative Power of Water Noted that bathing is not a new habit but a custom that survived in medieval Italy after the Romes demise. Therefore, the custom of bathing in the Roman world is briefly explained as follows. To the Romans, bathing was an irreplaceable part of the daily routine, which created relaxation, happiness, comfort, and well-being after a morning of hard work and business.[13] Bathing is viewed as a necessity as well as luxury, as baths are built with lavish and magnificent interiors, decorated with trophies, inscriptions, and sculpture, which reflected the splendor of the empire and the prosperity.[14] Furthermore, bathing had already gone beyond the functional and hygienic necessities of washing, and had been considered to be able to cleanse physical as well as moral stains.[15] Romans usually exercise before bathing as a means of keeping fit and healthy. The feelings of regeneration and rebirth of the body achieved through exercise and bathing acted as an effective tonic for the mind. Henc e, bathing, from its earliest history, was considered as therapeutic measure and received full support and authority from ancient medicine. Continuing to the Middle Ages of Italy, the habits of bathing was continuously popular. The understanding of bathing as the means of cleansing and hygiene as well as the maintenance or reestablishment of health was apparent. The development is that there was a change in the preference of where and what kind of water to bath. In the Roman world, people prefer bathing in the communal baths that is luxuriously decorated. However, in medieval Italy, with reference to the previous section Christianity and Purification of Water, people tend to define water of purity as from a natural environment, hence they prefer to enjoy therapeutic thermo-mineral baths, that is built at or near natural hot springs, than the artificially heated baths in a luxurious setting. The popularity of thermo-mineral baths in the Middle Ages depends on the curative qualities of their waters. in relation to the balance of elements in the setting all four elements of water, earth, fire, and air tangibly present in a thermos-mineral bath which might help the bodies to achieve a balance between the four medieval humors and hence to achieve health. The nature of the thermal-mineral phenomena of the region and the technical and architectural setups built around them on the volcanic hills were described with great precision by Dio in the early third century: The mountains here, which lie close to the inner bodies of water, have springs which send forth a great deal of fire mingled with water à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ from this association the water is heated and the fire moistened. The water on its way down the foothills to the sea runs into reservoirs and the inhabitants conduct the steam from it through pipes into upper rooms where they use the steam for vapor baths; for the hi gher it ascends from the earth and from the water, the drier it becomes. Costly apparatus is in use for turning both the vapor and water into practical use, and they are very serviceable indeed for the uses of daily life and also for effecting cures.[16] Here we can observe the presence of all classical elements in the setting of a thermo-mineral bath the natural heat of spring is fire mingled with water; the element earth presents as the water passes through the foothills while thermo-mineral baths were built in comparatively rural environment which are rocky and muddy, and some baths even were built directly on top of the Roman ruins; lastly, steam is created, which is a wet and visible form of the element air. Besides, it is also believed the mineral content added to water would produce different curative functions for different illnesses. Concerning the curative effect of mineral water, one could referred to the ancient book written by Vitruvius, a famous Roman author and architect, of the first century BC. Vitruvius devoted an entire chapter in Book Eight to the properties of waters in the ancient world: every hot spring has healing properties because it has been boiled with foreign substances, and this acquires a new useful quality. For example, Sulphur springs cure pains in the sinews, by warming up and burning out the corrupt humors of the body by their heat. Aluminous springs, used in the treatment of the limbs when enfeebled by paralysis or the stroke of any such malady, introduce warmth through the open pores, counteracting the chill by the opposite effect of their heat, and thus equably restoring the limbs to their former condition..[17] Rounding up the qualities of water as a beneficial natural resource contributing to the civilization of the society, a holy spiritual purifier in the Christian context, and an agency that combines with different elements and substances to generate curative function; water seems to be a perfect and completely positive element in the eyes of the medieval Italian society. However, bathing, as an activity which ones body is soaked and surrounded by water faced opposition of the Christian Church interestingly starting from the fifth century. As mentioned, bathing was a luxurious activity in the Roman world, which the Church drew a connection between the devil and the sinful temptations of baths, was against the Christian notion of spirituality. Barsanuphius, a hermit from Palestine, was asked if it was a sin to bathe if it were ordered by ones doctor, then the Church responded: Bathing is not absolutely forbidden to one who needs it of you are ill, you need it; so, it is not a sin. If a man is healthy, it cossets and relaxes the body and conduces to lust.[18] This query illustrates the permissive position taken by the Church with respect to medicinal and curative bathing. Many thermo-mineral baths and other bathing facilities continued to function throughout the Middle Ages. Since medieval medicine depended as much as ancient medicine has done upon hydrotherapy as a preventive and curative measure.[19] The opposition of the Church to bathing in medieval Italy is not an opposition to water. The Church respected the curative function of water, and reduced bathing to a functional, hygienic, and medicinal activity, opposing the component of pleasure and luxury associated with the experience of bathing. This reflected the seriousness of the medieval Italian society in their rational and intellectual reflection of their compact and spiritual relations with natural elements like water. Bibliography By Wikipedians, Biochemistry: An Introduction (PediaPress GmbH, Mainz, 2011) Cynthia Kosso and Anne Scott, The Nature and Function of Water, Baths, Bathing and Hygiene from Antiquity through the Renaissance (Brill) David Macauley, Elemental philosophy: earth, air, fire, and water as environmental ideas (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2010). Dio Cassius, Roman History (trans. Cary Earnest) http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/cassius_dio/home.html> [accessed 8 March 2017] Douglas Biow, The Culture of Cleanliness in Renaissance Italy (London: Cornell University Press, 2006) Fikret Yegà ¼l, Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity (New York: Architectural History Foundation, 1995) Marilyn Stokstad, Medieval Art (Colorado: Westview Press, 2004) Paolo Squatriti, Water and society in early medieval Italy, AD 400-1000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998) Vitruvius (trans Morris Hicky Morgan) http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0073:book%3D8:chapter%3D3:section%3D4> [accessed 8 March 2017] [1] By Wikipedians, Biochemistry: An Introduction (PediaPress GmbH, Mainz, 2011), p.62. [2] David Macauley, Elemental philosophy: earth, air, fire, and water as environmental ideas (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2010), p.43. [3] Cynthia Kosso and Anne Scott, The Nature and Function of Water, Baths, Bathing and Hygiene from Antiquity through the Renaissance (Brill), p.2. [4] Paolo Squatriti, Water and society in early medieval Italy, AD 400-1000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p.8-9. [5] By Wikipedians, p.62. [6] Marilyn Stokstad, Medieval Art (Colorado: Westview Press, 2004), p.5. [7] Marilyn Stokstad, p.41 [8] Marilyn Stokstad, p.41. [9] Marilyn Stokstad, p.43. [10] Image from Starvin Artist, History of Architecture 2, Pinterest https://www.pinterest.com/pin/251779435388066516/> [accessed 8 March 2017] [11] Image from Neonian Baptistery, Ravenna, Sacred Destinations http://www.sacred-destinations.com/italy/ravenna-battistero-neoniano> [accessed 8 March 2017] [12] Image from The Vision of Prophet Ezekiel, Macedonian Heritage http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/HellenicMacedonia/en/img_C235a.html> [accessed 8 March 2017] [13] Fikret Yegà ¼l, p.4. [14] Douglas Biow, The Culture of Cleanliness in Renaissance Italy (London: Cornell University Press, 2006), p.4. [15] Fikret Yegà ¼l, Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity (New York: Architectural History Foundation, 1995), p.5. [16] Dio Cassius, Roman History (trans. Cary Earnest), 48, 51 ff. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/cassius_dio/home.html> [accessed 8 March 2017] Fikret Yegà ¼l, p.4. [17] Vitruvius (trans Morris Hicky Morgan), 8, 3, 4. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0073:book%3D8:chapter%3D3:section%3D4> [accessed 8 March 2017] [18] Barsanuphius, 336 (ed. S. N. Schoinas, Volos, 1960); A.H.M. Jones, LRE, II, 977; III, 328. [19] Fikret Yegà ¼l, P.317.

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Huntington’s disease is an autosomal dominant (Harper et al, 1991) neurodegenerative disorder characterized by involuntary movements, cognitive loss, and psychiatric problems as described by Martin and Gusella (1986). These symptoms are related to the death of medium spiny projection neurons in the caudate nucleus, putamen, and the cortex (Reiner et al, 1988). In later stages of the disease, even areas such as the hippocampus and hypothalamus gets affected as well (Kassubek et al, 2004). Huntington’s disease has a prevalence rate of approximately 1 in 10,000 Caucasian populations (Harper et al, 1991).Patients with Huntington’s disease most typically display a choreic movement disorder involving involuntary writhing movements observed by George Huntington himself. The age of onset of Huntington’s disease seem to be normally distributed around the average age of 35 to 42, with small number of cases developing in patients younger than 20 years of age or older than 60 years of age (Andrew et al, 1993). The majority of juvenile patients, whose disease onset are at age 20 years or less, have inherited the paternally defected gene (Andrew et al, 1993).Patients usually died within 15 to 20 years of disease onset. Gusella et al (1983) first determined the location of the genetic mutation in Huntington’s disease to be the short arm of chromosome 4. It was after another 10 years did the researchers of The Huntington’s Disease Collaborative Research Group (1993) able to discover that a gene in chromosome 4 containing a trinucleotide repeat of CAG was abnormally expanded in diseased individuals. The IT15 (interesting transcript 15) gene, dubbed the huntingtin gene by the group, codes for the huntingtin gene.This CAG repeat, which translates into a poly-glutamine stretch, is highly polymorphic among the population ranging from 11 to 34 copies on normal individuals. However, in individuals with Huntington’s disease it expanded to more than 42 repeats and increasing to upwards of 100 (The Huntington’s Disease Collaborative Research Group, 1993). This provides evidence showing that the mutant huntingtin protein seems to be toxic to its native cells and confers a disease state to individuals with an extended length of repeats. There is also a correlation between the CAG length and disease onset as shown by Andrew et al (1993).The mutated elongated huntingtin protein is cut by enzymes into fragments and the fragments begin to form abnormal clusters, neuronal intranuclear inclusions (NIIs), inside cells. These clusters can also act to recruit normal proteins to adhere together as well (Davies et al, 1997). This was originally thought to cause the pathogenesis of Huntington’s disease. However, more recent studies have shown that the presence of NIIs is actually a coping response to the toxicity of mutant huntingtin proteins and acts to prolong the life of the cells and reduce intracellular mutant huntingtin in neighbouring neurons (Arrasate et al, 2004).The exact function of the wild-type huntingtin protein are unclear, however many efforts have been made in understanding its native functions. Nasir et al (1995) showed that homozygous huntingtin homologs in mice died before embryogenesis could occur and that heterozygotes displayed similar deficits as diseased human patients. Wild-type huntingtin is also crucial for establishing and maintaining neuronal identity, especially in cortex and striatum (Reiner et al, 2001).Current data can provide the conclusion that normal huntingtin protein has actions important for development in mammals. In vitro, wild-type huntingtin have been shown to act to protect brain cells from apoptotic stimuli, such as serum deprivation, mitochondrial toxins, or the transfection of death genes (Cattaneo et al, 2005). Wild-type huntingtin protein, not mutated, stimulates brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) production by acting at level of Bdnf tra nscription. BDNF is very important for survival of striatal neurons (Cattaneo et al, 2005).Intracellularly, huntingtin protein has been found to associate with various organelles such as the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi complex (Cattaneo et al, 2005). It has also been found in neurites and at synapses, where it associates with vesicular structures and microtubules (Li et al, 2003). This characteristic has been shown to enhance vesicular transport of BDNF along microtubules (Gauthier et al, 2004). On a similar note, huntingtin interacts with a number of cytoskeletal and synaptic vesicle proteins that are essential for exo- and endocytosis at synaptic terminals.Wild-type huntingtin binds directly to the Src homology 3 domain of postsynaptic density protein 95, which binds NMDA and kainite receptors. This activity is decreased in mutant proteins and can lead to overactivation or sensitization of NMDA receptors (Cattaneo et al, 2005). Aside from the toxicity of the mutated huntingtin protein, the loss of normal huntingtin protein also seems to add to the pathogenesis of Huntington’s disease. Presence of only mutant huntingtin protein results in massive apoptotic cell death in the testes of male mice (Leavitt, 2001).However, no apoptosis can be seen in testes of mice expressing human mutant huntingtin when wild-type huntingtin is expressed as well (Leavitt, 2001). It was also seen that in mice, the absence of wild-type huntingtin protein led to a worsening of striatal atrophy and neuronal loss, and a significant decrease in neuronal cross-sectional area compared to mice that had wild-type huntingtin present (Cattaneo et al, 2005). Huntington’s disease still remains incurable to this day. However, many treatments are available for treatments of its symptoms.Chorea, the hallmark of the disease is a major target for many treatments. Such drugs include dopamine-depleting agents, dopamine antagonists, benzodiazepines, glutamate antagonists, ac etylcholinesterase inhibitors, dopamine agonists, antiseizure medications, cannabinoids, lithium, deep brain stimulation and fetal cell transplantation (Frank and Jankovic, 2010). One notable drug currently in use is Tetrabenazine, which is the only US FDA-approved drug for treatment of Huntington’s disease (Frank and Jankovic, 2010).The drug acts by reversibly inhibiting the central vesicular monoamine transporter type 2, this cause a depletion of dopamine (Bagchi, 1983). The main area of effect for tetrabenazine is in the caudate nucleus, putamen, and the nucleus accumbens, all areas known to be responsible for the major pathology of the disease. The Huntington Study Group (2006) was able to demonstrate the efficacy of tetrabenazine in a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Subjects who received tetrabenazine showed a change from the baseline in the maximal chorea score of the UHDRS.Compared to the baseline, treatment resulted in a reduction of 5. 0 units in chorea compa red with a 1. 5 unit reduction for the placebo group. A second symptom targeted for treatment to allow patients to function normally is the psychiatric problems. Dopamine receptor blocking agents are commonly used as anti-psychotics in order to treat psychosis associated with Huntington’s disease (Frank and Jankovic, 2010). There are many ethical issues that have been associated with Huntington’s disease patients, in particular pertaining to the application of genetic testing.The expanded CAG repeats associated with Huntington’s disease (Gusella et al, 1983) are used as a predictive testing to determine the risk of a person for developing inherited HD gene. The debate of ethics with respect to genetic testing for Huntington’s disease seems to lie on several major factors including: autonomy, beneficence, confidentiality, and justice (Huggins et al, 1990). The question remains whether or not the current use of genetic predictive testing is ethical. Autonom y refers to the respect for the individual’s right to make an informed decision about an action that may have a profound effect on his or her life.The patients should feel no pressure from physicians or institutions with regards to their decision for genetic testing. Also, they should also have a full understanding of the consequences and implications of their decisions. This would require physicians to provide all the necessary information to the patients so that they are informed about the testing. If a woman refuses to get tests done for her baby even though her relatives are with her insisting on getting it performed, the physician cannot allow the testing to be performed.Beneficience is summarized by the phrase â€Å"first do no harm† (Huggins et al, 1990). This is an important factor when the results of the test may reveal genetic information about oneself. This implies not only avoiding harm to patient but also preventing harm to other individuals, which may inc lude family members of patients. Due to the genetic characteristics of Huntington’s disease, family members can be both directly and indirection influenced by the results of the test.If for example a pregnant woman decides to get an ultra sound for her baby in order to find out if the baby has spina bifida, and upon confirmation by the physician decides that she wants to give birth at home as opposed to in a hospital where the baby could be treated correctly in order to minimize the risk of the disease. The physician should take any action he can in order to avoid any risk to the health of the baby. Confidentiality with genetic tests applies the same as with any other form of personal information. It should not be disclosed to any other third parties, which includes family members as well.For example, if two siblings were to go and receive a CAG repeat test at the same time and one sibling asks the physician about the results of the other sibling. The physician cannot disclos e any information or they will violate the confidentiality of the patient. Justice simply means equal access to health services and information to all. This also includes long-term support and guidelines for testing as a medical service so that the service is not difficult to obtain if needed. For example, even though Cystic Fibrosis is mostly only prominent in Caucasians, the testing should still be offered to regnant women of other ethnicities as well. Other ethical dilemmas still exist with current genetic testing technologies. One particularly pertaining to Huntington’s disease is whether or not the information is obtained even though there is no cure for the disease. In diseases such as phenylketonuria (PKU), after newborn screening, dietary interventions will allow the individuals with the condition to lead healthy and normal lives (Lea et al, 2005). However, for Huntington’s disease, even after knowing that the disease will affect the individual what can be done ?Therefore, would it be better to not know at all? By testing and finding out that an individual has the mutation that will eventually lead to the development of Huntington’s disease, the individual can attend to the initial development of symptoms and as a result may be treated much earlier. This can result in a more favourable prognosis. Similarly, the individual can live more cautiously as to prevent further exacerbation of their condition. On a more subjective level, the individual may use the knowledge to live a more fulfilling life knowing that he or she may not live as long as the rest of the population.Conversely, the information can also be used negatively. There can be a lot of discrimination in terms of applying for employment and health insurance. This information would also impact the ambition and life goals of the individual, the amount of psychological harm that comes with eventually developing an incurable and lethal neurodegenerative disease is extremely larg e. Similarly, would they still pursue to have a family and children if they knew that they had a very high risk of dying at a young age? This particular issue should be resolved by following the ethical factors listed before.As long as the individual is informed, are being prevented from harm, information not shared with any third party members, and has access to healthcare services, then being tested for Huntington’s disease will be ethically correct. This knowledge will give them insight on how to live the rest of their life. Another dilemma that has Harper, P. S. , Morris, M. J. , Quarrell, O. , Shaw, D. J. , Tyler, A. , and Youngman, S. (1991). The epidemiology of Huntington’s disease. J. Med. Genet. 89: 365-376. Martin, J. B. , and Gusella, J. K. (1986).Huntington’s disease: pathogenesis and management. N. Engl. J. Med. 315: 1267-1276. Andrew, S. E. , Goldberg, Y. P. , Kremer, B. , Telenius, H. , Theilmann, J. , Adamn, S. , Starr, E. , Squitieri, F. , Lin, B. , Kalchman, M. A. , Graham, R. K. , and Hayden, M. R. (1993). The relationship between trinucleotide (CAG) repeat length and clinical features of Huntington’s disease. Nat Genet. 4: 398-403. The Huntington’s Disease Collaborative Research Group (1993). A novel gene containing a trinucleotide repeat that is expanded and unstable on Huntington’s disease chromosomes.Cell. 72: 971-983. Gusella, J. F. , Wexler, N. S. , Coneally, P. M. , Naylor, S. L. , Anderson, M. A. , Tanzi, R. E. , Watkins, P. C. , Ottina, K. , Wallace, M. R. , Sakaguchi, Y. A. , et al. (1983). A polymorphic DNA marker genetically linked to Huntington’s disease. Nature. 306: 234-238. Reiner, A. , Albin, R. L. , Anderson, K. D. , D’Amato, C. J. , Penney, J. B. , and Young, A. B. (1988). Differential loss of striatal projection neurons in Huntington disease. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA. 85: 5733–5737. Kassubek, J. , Gaus, W. , and Landwehrmeyer, G. B. (2004).Evidence for more w idespread cerebral pathology in early HD: and MRI-based morphometric analysis. Neurology. 62: 523-524. Nasir, J. , Floresco, S. B. , O’Kusky, J. R. , Diewert, V. M. , Richman, J. M. , Zeisler, J. , Borowski, A. , Marth, J. D. , Philips, A. G. , and Hayden, M. R. (1995). Targeted disruption of the Huntington’s disease gene results in embryonic lethality and behavioral and morphological changes in heterozygotes. Cell. 81: 811-823. Cattaneo, E. , Zuccato, C. , and Tartari, M. (2005). Normal huntingtin function: alternative approach to Huntington’s disease.Nat Rev Neurosci. 6: 919-930. Li, J. Y. , Plomann, M. & Brundin, P. (2003). Huntington’s disease: a synaptopathy? Trends Mol. Med. 9: 414–420. Reiner, A. , Del Mar, N. , Meade, C. A. , Yang, H. , Dragatsis, I. , Zeitlin, S. , and Goldowitz, D. (2001). Neurons lacking huntingtin differentially colonize brain and survive in chimeric mice. J. Neurosci. 21: 7608-7619. Gauthier, L. R. , Charrin, B. C. , B orrell-Pages, M. , Dompierre, J. P. , Rangone, H. , Cordelieres, F. P. , De Mey, J. , MacDonald, M. E. , Lessmann, V. , Humbert, S. , and Saudou, F. 2004). Huntingtin controls neurotrophic support and survival of neurons by enhancing BDNF vesicular transport along microtubules. Cell. 118: 127-138. Leavitt, B. R. , Guttman, J. A. , Hodgson, J. G. , Kimel, G. H. , Singaraja, R. , Vogl, A. W. , and Hayden, M. R. (2001). Wild-type hungtingtin reduces the cellular toxicity of mutant huntingtin in vivo. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 68: 313-324. Davies, S. W. , Turmaine, M. , Cozens, B. A. , DiFiglia, M. , Sharp, A. H. , Ross, C. A. , Scherzinger, E. , Wanker, E. E. , Mangiarini, L. , and Bates, G. P. (1997).Formation of neuronal intranuclear inclusions underlies the neurological dysfunction in mice transgenic for the HD mutation. Cell. 90: 537-548. Arrasate, M. , Mitra, S. , Schweitzer, E. S. , Segal, M. R. , and Finkbeiner, S. (2004). Inclusion body formation reduces levels of mutant huntingtin an d the risk of neuronal death. Nature. 431: 805-810. Frank, S. , and Jankovic, J. (2010). Advances in the pharmacological management of Huntington’s disease. Drugs. 70: 561-571. Bagchi, S. P. (1983). Differential interactions of phencyclidine with tetrabenazine and reserpine affecting intraneuronal dopamine.Biochem Pharmacol. 32: 2851-6 Huntington Study Group. (2006). Tetrabenazine as antichorea therapy in Huntington disease: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology. 66: 366-72 Huggins, M. , Bloch, M. , Kanani, S. , Quarrell, O. W. , Theilman, J. , Hedrick, A. , Dickens, B. , Lynch, A. , and Hayden, M. (1990). Ethical and legal dilemmas arising during predictive testing for adult-onset disease: the experience of Huntington disease. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 47: 4-12. Lea, D. H. , Williams, J. , and Donahue, M. P. (2005). Ethical issues in genetic testing. J. Midwifery Womens Health. 550:234-240.

Internship Application Essay Samples - an in Depth Anaylsis on What Works and What Doesnt

Internship Application Essay Samples - an in Depth Anaylsis on What Works and What Doesn't Of all Of the tasks a manager performs, employee motivation is easily the most complex. There are various ways to motivate men and women in the workplace. Motivating employees is among the main tasks that managers perform in their organizations, as work motivation has an important role for the business's success. From the view of the employers, the template can enable them to choose the acceptable candidates based on the demands of their organization. The target of internship essay sample is to represent the skilled abilities and abilities a probationer has obtained during their internship at the specific organization. To understand what the definition of an internship is, keep reading. Close your internship application by means of your contact info and your urge to work for the business through that internship position. At length, close your internship cover letter by giving your con tact information as well as your urge to work and learn from the organization through an internship prospect. My very first internship experience has been quite beneficial in increasing my career abilities. An internship will allow you to gain extra wisdom and skillsand you'll also get to understand a whole lot of the specifics of your upcoming job. It will help yougain additional knowledge and skills, and you will also get to know a lot of the specifics of your future job. Maybe your next internship is going to be withGoogle! Internship Application Essay Samples - Dead or Alive? Another key to success entails an individual must have a professional attitude as a way to fit in the competitive sector. If you're on the lookout for some other applications, take a look at our completely free application examplesA here. When you have identified your purpose, it would be simpler to follow through. Your purpose should be explained concisely. Key Pieces of Internship Application Essay Samples Essays aren't generalizations from the typical pitfalls. It is likewise a fantastic idea to speak about why they're fascinated in the specific corporation they are apply to, which will explain that they've completed their homework. It's been applied to a wide selection of studies and research indicates this theory can predict employee motivation in various cultures. Internship Application Essay Samples Options The content of your internship email will be dependent on your objective. An email is a sort of letter, so it has to contain the fundamental sections of the letter. Provided that you understand how to compose an expert email, then you're guaranteed to receive a positive reaction. An official email gives you an excellent image. New Ideas Into Internship Application Essay Samples Never Before Revealed It's the manager's responsibility to be certain that the intern understands the way the organization communicates expectations, holds employees accountable and achieves business targets. For example, you wish to make an application for an internship slot in a specific f irm. This incredible website, including experienced business for 9 decades, is one of the main pharmacies on the web. A worker motivated by extrinsic elements could be there solely for the money and other added benefits. New Step by Step Roadmap for Internship Application Essay Samples If you would like to include references, utilize the Excel version. It's readily available for free download. It is possible to purchase each one of the templates individually or you may get all of them in one easy download! The company Internship PPT theme is among the most significant tools you need as an internee. The Birth of Internship Application Essay Samples It plays an important part in any workplace. When an employee can't be fully utilized then there is going to be a motivation issue. To conclude, motivation is quite critical at work. Motivation at work is just one of the most significant aspects inside an organization. It is very important to remember your internship applicati on form is the sole link between you and your employer. You must have determination, perseverance, a lengthy patience and more importantly an excellent internship application. If you're asking for an internship, you will probably have to submit a cover letter as a portion of your application. Compassion, if you prefer to a strong internship in your own personal statement. The Basic Facts of Internship Application Essay Samples Tell the organization the way you can promote their business and the way the internship or co-op will prepare you for your preferred career. For instance, the internship program may have an aim of recruiting at least 10 candidates for each position. For that reason, it will become safe to conclude this internship may sufficiently assist me in becoming a suitable expert in the human resource field later on. Along with a salary, internships can provide other benefits also. Do note it is still quite vital to make your handwriting as understandable because they can be so that the HR won't have trouble informingA you if they're eager to supply you with an opportunity to work in their internship programme. Job rotation also provides the employee the chance to build skills and knowledge in different areas within the job. 4 The job should have significant challenge to use the complete capability of the worker. When you're redesigning jobs, you might wish to consider job rotation.

Analysis Of The Breadwinner By Deborah Ellis - 826 Words

I chose to read â€Å"The Breadwinner† by Deborah Ellis for my historical novel. It was a very enjoyable book to read but it was quite heartbreaking as well. The story delves into many important issues such as female rights and extremism. In the story, Parvana must go out into the market dressed as a boy to shop for food for her family and to make money for them as well after his father is arrested. Before the Taliban took over, Parvana’s family was well off and the family was educated. After the Taliban took over Afghanistan, girls could not have their hair showing and women had to wear burquas when outside. I was really struck by the oppression that women are subjected to in that part of the world. Another part of the book at†¦show more content†¦Going along with my previous point of my poor judgement on the old Afghanistan culture, I did not realize that women had been allowed to be educated and have many rights. I was under the media-pedalled illusion that women in Afghanistan and other parts of the Middle East were all forced to wear a burqua and that it was a long standing tradition. After the Taliban took over, women were not allowed to even leave their homes without a male escort. The windows in the homes had to be painted so that the outside world could not see the women in the house. In one part of the book, Parvana takes her little sister outside and it is said that it was her first time outside in over a year and a half. I was completely at a loss to be able to make sense of why such things had happened. The complete stripping of rights for women is so devastating. Even in western culture, women have only gained the right to vote relatively recently. I do not know if I will ever fully understand why women are the last to gain rights and are even still marginalized sometimes in today’s Western society. In the story, Parvana is only eleven years old and she is thrust into being the sole money earner for her family of four . This is amazing because in Canada, it is frowned upon to even leave an eleven year old to look after themselves. Parvana had to be the breadwinner because she was the only one â€Å"old† enough to work and not so old that she would be recognized as a girl. Also, if sheShow MoreRelatedFundamentals of Hrm263904 Words   |  1056 PagesHRM 28 PART 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 THE LEGAL AND ETHICAL CONTEXT OF HRM Equal Employment Opportunity 56 Employee Rights and Discipline 84 PART 3 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 STAFFING THE ORGANIZATION Human Resource Planning and Job Analysis 110 Recruiting 132 Foundations of Selection 154 PART 4 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT Socializing, Orienting, and Developing Employees 182 Managing Careers 208 PART 5 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 MAINTAININGRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesNorthern Arizona University Bradley Alge, Purdue University Lois Antonen, CSUS Lucy Arendt, University of Wisconsin, Green Bay Anke Arnaud, University of Central Florida Mihran Aroian, University of Texas, Austin Gary Ballinger, Purdue University Deborah Balser, University of Missouri at St. Louis Christopher Barlow, DePaul University Joy Benson, University of Wisconsin at Green Bay Lehman Benson III, University of Arizona Jacqui Bergman, Appalachian State University Anne Berthelot, University ofRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pageslamentable. Taken together, the key themes and processes that have been selected as the focus for each of the eight essays provide a way to conceptualize the twentieth century as a coherent unit for teaching, as well as for written narrative and analysis. Though they do not exhaust the crucial strands of historical development that tie the century together—one could add, for example, nationalism and decolonization—they cover in depth the defining phenomena of that epoch, which, as the essays demonstrate